a. Best estimates: 135 different minority groups in Burma
i. Caused by 2000+ years of mingling due to Burma’s position between China, India, and Thailand
ii. Burman Majority is about 2/3 of population
iii. Seven states in Burma represent minority populations, but those aren’t homogenous
II. History
a. 1947 – Aung San negotiated for independence, convinced minority groups to join the Union of Burma
b. 1947- Panglong Agreement outlines Aung San’s comittment to minority rights, gives Shan and Karenni people right to secede 10 years after independence
c. 1947 – Aung San and his cabinet are assassinated in July
d. 1948 – Karen and Mon people, who were not part of agreement, express frustration at new government’s failure to give ethnic minorities self-determination and autonomy, take up arms against new government w/ Communist Party of Burma
e. 1962 – Coup by Burma Socialist Program Party sees death of popular movement for minority rights. Crackdown on minorities and democracy advocates in ethnic border regions sparks cycle of conflict which continues to this day.
III. Major Minority Groups
a. Shan
i. 3-4 million (9%), Largest group
ii. Live in state of Shan, also Kachin to the North
iii. Mostly Buddhists, speak language related to Thai and Lao
iv. The Shan State Army-South still fights w/ government, full slew of abuses (extrajudicial killing, rape, conscription) follows.
v. Many have been displaced by conflict and fled to refugee camps in Thailand
b. Karen
i. Refers to a number of groups, totaling 7 million
ii. Live in South Burma and along border w/ Thailand in Karen State (also Kayin state) This is where Mae Sot is!
iii. Buddhists and 1/3 Christian, speak a family of languages known as Karenic
iv. Have suffered the worst from atrocities such as extrajudicial killings and human minesweeping, also discrimination based on language and access to education
c. Mon
i. Less than 1 million (state department) 4 million (Mon leaders)
ii. Live primarily in Mon State in East
iii. Therevada Buddhists, speak Mon, but its usage has declined
iv. Has negotiated a cease-fire, however the Mon State remains highly militarized, limiting access for IDPs and the UN. Also, occasional raids continue
d. Kachin
i. Again, a variety of smaller groups, estimates say over 1 million
ii. Live in North in Kachin State
iii. Speak various dialects which belong to the Tibeto-Burman family, only 10% Christian
iv. Are pressured to convert to Buddhism, state remains highly militarized, human rights abuses continue, ethnic Burmans dominate government, and locals are marginalized by large mining and dam projects
e. Rohingya and Muslims
i. Over 2 million Muslims
ii. Live mostly in Rahkine state: Those who live in north are called Rohingya, those who live in other parts called Arkanese Muslims
iii. Primarily Sunni, Rohingya Muslims speak Royhingya, whereas Arakanese speak the local language, which is a dialect of Burmese
iv. Citizenship restrictions, delayed marriage permits, need to travel passes, additionally forced labor and land confiscation
f. Chin
i. Name encompasses 40 different ethnic groups of Burman descent. Roughly 1.5 million.
ii. Live in Western Burma in the mountain ranges, Chin State
iii. 40 different Burman dialects, 80% Christian
iv. Discriminated against for access to education, land is confiscated for tea and jatropha plantation
g. Karenni
i. A dozen Karen-related groups (Red Karen) about 250,000
ii. Live in Kayah State (formerly Karenni State)
iii. Majority Christian, also speak Karennic family of languages
iv. Smallest and most impoverished state, militarized, people displaced for projects, also denied benefits of projects (such as the Lawpita hydro-electricity dam)
IV. Current Situation
a. Many groups have signed cease-fires, but a number of ethnic minority parties have refused to sign: the Karen National Union, the Shan State Army-South, the Karenni National Progressive Party, the Chin National Front, the National Socialist Council of Nagaland and various Rohingya groups
b. Counter-insurgency operations are marked by the excessive use of force by government
c. National convention to make new constitution started in 93 by SPDC. National League for Democracy, headed by Aung San Suu Kyi agreed, as did many other ethnic parties. Political activists and leaders were arrested so that by 2006, most ethnic groups and parties had withdrawn from the process. Ended in Sept of 2007, started again in October 2007 with hand picked writers. The National Convention is now seen as an attempt to legitimize military rule for another generation.
V. Human Rights Abuses
a. 1996-2006 saw 1 million IDPs and 150,000 refugees, which the government denies access by relief agencies to.
b. Civilians are relocated to militarized villages where their rights are abused. Abuses include extra-judicial killings, human minesweeping, torture, and confiscation of minority lands.
c. Additionally, minorities can be relocated into forced labor, which violates the International Labor Organization Convention 29 concerning Forced or Compulsory Labor, which Burma signed
d. Sexual violence also occurs, notably in the Chin and Karen State
e. Muslim minority in North Rakine State isn’t even recognized as an ethnic group, and is denied equal citizenship rights, unable to access medical and educational services because they are so restricted in their movement
f. Christian minorities also face discrimination, but to a lesser extent
